Dr. Mike Stallard
This article originally appeared in Ariel Magazine, Winter 2024, Vol. 1, No. 53. Readers who wish to view the article in its original magazine format may access the complete issue here: [link].
INTRODUCTION
One of the major issues of interpretation in the Bible is the meaning of the word Israel. The history of the church has often been the record of diminishing the importance of the nation of Israel and the Jewish people. Part of that trend has been to understand the word Israel in a nonliteral way. Around eighty years ago, Oswald T. Allis, a brilliant Reformed scholar, wrote clearly about the tension in this matter—a debate still played out among evangelicals between dispensationalism and covenant theology over the meaning of the term:
Literal interpretation has always been a marked feature of Premillennialism; in Dispensationalism it has been carried to an extreme. We have seen that this literalism found its most thoroughgoing expression in the claim that Israel must mean Israel, that it cannot mean the Church…Now if the principle of interpretation is adopted that Israel always means Israel, that it does not mean the Church, then it follows of necessity that practically all of our information regarding the millennium will concern a Jewish or Israelitish age (italics added).[1]
The study here attempts to show that the term Israel interpreted using grammatical-historical interpretation points in some way to the Hebrews, Israelites, or Jewish people.
GENERAL BIBLE STATISTICS
The word Israel appears 2,583 times in the entire Bible.[2] There are a few terms that appear more often in the Scriptures, as the table shows.
Interestingly, the word church occurs only 112 times. This does not mean that the church is far less important than Israel. They are of equal significance in God’s plan. The numbers, however, stress the significance of Israel as a term to take seriously in its own right.
OLD TESTAMENT USAGE
In the Hebrew Bible, the word for “Israel” appears 2,507 times. There are three different ways that the term is used, although each one refers to He-brews in some way: (1) a man named Jacob, the grandson of Abraham; (2) the descendants of Jacob, that is, the twelve tribes of Israel; and (3) the ten northern tribes of Israel (sometimes called Ephraim) after the division of the kingdom.
THE MAN NAMED JACOB
The name Israel first appears in Genesis 32:28. Before the reconciliation between Esau and Jacob in the first part of the chapter 33, Jacob wrestles with a man at night (32:24). In the end, he recognizes that he has wrestled with God (v. 30). During this struggle, God gives Jacob a new name:
“Your name shall no longer be Jacob, but Israel; for you have striven with God and with men and have prevailed” (v. 28).
The name Israel means either “He strives/fights with God” or “God fights.” The context better supports the first possibility since God tells Jacob that he fought with God. This wrestling with God highlights the close relationship between Jacob and God, foreshadowing the ongoing closeness between God and the nation of Israel in the days ahead. The history that started with Abraham continues through his grandson Jacob, now known as Israel.
The word Israel also refers to the new name of Jacob in Old Testament passages that mention the sons of Israel (645 times) or the tribes of Israel (52 times). In fact, the phrase sons of Jacob equates to the sons of Israel in Genesis 49:2: “Gather together and hear, O sons of Jacob; and listen to Israel your father.” What follows is a list of Israel’s sons with pronounced blessings. A summary is given later in the chapter using the term tribes instead of sons: “All these are the twelve tribes of Israel, and this is what their father said to them when he blessed them” (v. 28). In this way, Jacob’s new name Israel is attached to his progeny, who over time will collectively be called by that same name.
THE DESCENDANTS OF JACOB
The descendants of Jacob or Israel become a rather large family as the years progress. Following the period of slavery in Egypt, God delivers the people in the Exodus. That family commences to function as a nation or, in modern parlance, a nation-state under the leadership of Moses. In addition, the “congregation of the sons of Israel” (Ex. 35:20) begins to be called Israelites (Ex. 35:29), thereby showing the connection to the name of their ancestor Jacob. Near the end of the wilderness experience for the Israelites, it was common for the name Israel to refer to the entire nation or family of the descendants of Jacob.[3] Deuteronomy 5:1 says,
“Then Moses summoned all Israel and said to them: ‘Hear, O Israel, the statutes and the ordinances which I am speaking today in your hearing.’”
That is quickly followed by one of the most famous verses in the Old Testament:
“Hear, O Israel! The Lord is our God, the LORD is one!” (Deut. 6:4).
In this context, the appeal to the word Israel clearly means the whole nation as a people (see also Deut. 9:1; 20:3).
Israel as a moniker for the descendants of Jacob also naturally continues in the prophets. The prophet Amos provides an important example. After a book full of pronouncements against the sins of mostly the northern ten tribes, the prophet looks to the end time days when God would unite the divided kingdom (Amos 9:11-15). When describing this great day, God, through the prophet, predicts,
“Also I will restore the captivity of My people Israel, and they will rebuild the ruined cities and live in them” (v. 14).
In this verse, the term Israel refers not merely to Jacob but to the entire group of Israelites or descendants of Jacob. In other words, the promise is to the people as a nation. What is exciting about this last section in the book of Amos is the final and certain promise:
“‘I will also plant them on their land, and they will not again be rooted out from their land which I have given them,’ says the LORD your God” (v. 15).
As a people group, as a nation, Israel—the descendants of Jacob—will possess their land permanently. Thus, there is a future for the nation, which we can biblically call Israel.
THE TEN NORTHERN TRIBES OF ISRAEL
After the death of Solomon, the kingdom of Israel is split in two. The southern half covers the territory and people of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. Due to the overwhelming superiority in territorial size and numbers of people, the southern nation carries the name of Judah. Judah also has an attachment to King David, who was from that tribe. The initial leader of the southern kingdom of Judah is Rehoboam, the son of Solomon. The kingdom made up of the ten northern tribes keeps the name of the entire kingdom before it is divided: Israel. The leader of this northern kingdom is Jeroboam, son of Nebat.
This breakup of the nation of Israel is recorded poignantly in 1 Kings 12:16:
“When all Israel saw that the king did not listen to them, the people answered the king, saying, ‘What portion do we have in David? We have no inheritance in the son of Jesse; To your tents, O Israel! Now look after your own house, David!’”
The king who would not listen was Rehoboam. As a result of the king’s harshness, the people of the northern tribes reject the house of David, who was the son of Jesse from the tribe of Judah, from ruling over them. Interestingly, they keep the name Israel, as evidenced by the cry, “To your tents, O Israel!” The southern kingdom begins to be called Judah after David’s tribe. Later on, the hardening of these names of the northern and southern kingdoms as Israel and Judah is part of the historical information in the Hebrew Bible. For example, 2 Chronicles 25:21-22 records,
“So Joash king of Israel went up, and he and Amaziah king of Judah faced each other at Beth Shemesh, which belonged to Judah. Judah was defeated by Israel, and they fled each to his tent.”
The book of Amos (755 B.C.) reinforces this use of Israel and Judah as the names of the northern and southern kingdoms, respectively. In Amos 1:3–2:3, God announces judgment on the sins of Damascus, Gaza, Tyre, Edom, Ammon, and Moab. He then speaks against Judah in 2:4-5. The southern kingdom is certainly in view, as even Jerusalem, now the capital of Judah and former capital of the entire nation, is mentioned (v. 5). Finally, God, through the prophet, zeroes in mostly on the transgressions and punishments of Israel, starting at 2:6 and going all the way to 9:10. It is clear that Israel is the name for the kingdom containing the ten northern tribes, which come from Jacob. This labeling of the two kingdoms is not surprising since the book of Amos opens by telling us that its prophecies were given when Uzziah was king of Judah and Jeroboam, the son of Joash, was king of Israel.
Thus, the word Israel is used in three different ways in the Old Testament: the man Jacob who was given the new name of Israel, the descendants of Jacob (nation or family of Israel), and the northern ten tribes after the division of the kingdom. There is one thread that unifies this diverse usage. In every case, the term is referring to Hebrews, starting with Jacob. It does not describe a spiritual reality of individual redemption, although the hope was always that the individuals involved and so named would seek the Lord and know Him personally.
NEW TESTAMENT USAGE
The Greek word for Israel occurs in the New Testament sixty-eight times. In addition, the Greek term for Israelite appears nine times (Jn. 1:47; Acts 2:22, 3:12, 5:35, 13:16, 21:28; Rom. 9:4, 11:1; 2 Cor. 11:22).
The usage of the word Israel in the New Testament is similar to that in the Hebrew Bible, with one difference. The use of Israel to mean just the northern ten tribes appears infrequently and is not emphasized. This does not mean that the New Testament adopts any fallacious theory about the “ten lost tribes,” as will become clear below.
The New Testament uses the term Israel as a name for Jacob, as a designation for the descendants of Jacob (all twelve tribes as a people or nation), and as a way to speak of the northern ten tribes.
THE MAN NAMED JACOB
The New Testament at times uses the designation Israel to mean the individual man named Jacob, the son of Isaac. A few examples illustrate the point. First, in Matthew 19:28, Yeshua uses the phrase “twelve tribes of Israel.” In that statement, Israel signifies Jacob the individual. Likewise, in Luke 1:16, there is an angelic prediction that John the Baptist “will turn many of the sons of Israel back to the Lord their God.” In Stephen’s sermon in Acts 7, Israel as Jacob is used twice in referencing the “sons of Israel” (vv. 23, 37). John’s vision in the Apocalypse provides other examples. The apostle hears the number 144,000 or 12,000 individuals from each of the twelve tribes of Israel (Rev. 7:4-8). Objections based upon the absence of the tribe of Dan from the list and the addition of Manasseh, the grandson of Jacob, instead, should be rejected. There is no reason whatsoever, following grammatical-historical interpretation, to take this list in a nonliteral way. Israel in 7:4 refers to Jacob the man, while the details cite eleven of his sons and one grandson. Taking the text in a straightforward way makes perfect sense in the context. The book of Revelation describes an eternal state in which a beautiful New Jerusalem comes out of heaven to the new earth. The twelve gates around the city have the names of the twelve tribes of the sons of Israel written on them, although the sons are not named (Rev. 21:12). In this last use of the word Israel in the Bible, the meaning is clearly the individual man Jacob, whose name is also Israel.
DESCENDANTS OF JACOB, THE TWELVE TRIBES
At the outset, it is important to point out that the New Testament uses the term Israel to refer to all twelve tribes. It is a false understanding to believe that the northern tribes, who were taken into captivity by Assyria around 722 B.C., were somehow lost to history or ceased to exist after that time. We cannot limit the New Testament usage of Israel to only the southern kingdom (Judah and Benjamin). First, the Old Testament historical records demonstrate that there were Israelites from the northern tribes in the land after the Assyrian conquest of Israel. In 2 Chronicles 30:1, King Hezekiah of Judah (d. 687 B.C.) sends letters to those from northern tribes inviting them to Jerusalem for Passover. In the following discussion, those from the tribes of Ephraim, Manasseh, Zebulun, and Asher are specifically mentioned (2 Chron. 30:10-11). Later in history, Josiah (d. 609 B.C.) received offerings from the tribes of Manasseh and Ephraim as well as from the southern kingdom (2 Chron. 34:9).
In addition, the New Testament mentions several times that there are still twelve tribes. In Matthew 19:28, Yeshua affirms that the twelve apostles would “sit upon twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel.” Furthermore, Paul defends himself before King Agrippa with these words: “And now I am standing trial for the hope of the promise made by God to our fathers; the promise to which our twelve tribes hope to attain, as they earnestly serve God night and day” (Acts 26:6-7). Thus, both Yeshua and Paul saw the present reality of all twelve tribes as well as a future prospect for the people of Israel. One entire New Testament book is written “to the twelve tribes who are dispersed abroad” (Jas. 1:1). In Revelation 21:12, God’s future eternal state mentions the twelve tribes. In light of these affirmations, the interpreter should not limit the New Testament understanding of the number of tribes constituting its use of the term Israel. Other instances in the New Testament illustrate the pattern of using the word Israel to refer to the twelve tribes, that is, the whole nation of Israel. When the centurion begs for Yeshua to heal his servant at a distance, Messiah says to the crowd, “I have not found such great faith with anyone in Israel” (Mt. 8:10). Israel can only mean the entire nation, who are descendants of Jacob.3 After His crucifixion and resurrection, Yeshua walks with two disciples on the way to Emmaus. Unaware that they were talking to the risen Messiah, one of them says, “We were hoping that it was He who was going to redeem Israel” (Lk. 24:21). Again, Israel refers to the descendants of Jacob who compose the nation. Then, after Yeshua teaches the disciples that a baptism of the Spirit is coming soon, they ask Him, “Lord, is it at this time You are restoring the kingdom to Israel?” (Acts 1:6). Only the entire nation of twelve tribes makes sense of the word Israel in their question. In the epistles, one prominent example is Romans 11:26. Paul points ahead to the time when the entire people of Israel (all of the Hebrew people) will be saved. Interestingly, he supports his statement by quoting Isaiah 59:20, where the word Jacob is used also as a name for the entire nation.
THE TEN NORTHERN TRIBES OF ISRAEL
One New Testament passage differentiates between the northern and southern kingdoms. Hebrews 8:8 begins a quotation from Jeremiah 31:31-34:
“Behold, days are coming, says the LORD, when I will effect a new covenant with the house of Israel and with the house of Judah.”
Here, the word Israel points to the northern ten tribes in contrast to the southern kingdom of Judah. The promise of a future new covenant for both of the kingdoms together is envisioned but not as separate events. Later in the passage (both in Jeremiah and in Hebrews), the text says, “For this is the covenant that I will make with the house of Israel.” Judah is not mentioned. This is most likely a reference that covers Judah nonetheless so that the entire nation is included.
In the first century, sorting out the political boundaries complicated the analysis of Jewish sections in the empire. Judah was a particular province of Rome, Pontius Pilate being its most famous governor. However, Perea and Galilee were also distinct political territories where Jewish people lived. Most of the Jews thought in terms of the genetic family coming from Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. That was Israel to them.
SPECIAL ISSUES
Two major New Testament passages are often interpreted in such a way that the word Israel actually includes Gentiles in a spiritual way. Israel, in this view, becomes a designation relative to spiritual salvation. It refers to those who know the Lord and not in some way to ethnic people like Jacob and his progeny. It is spiritual Israel and not physical Israel. This misinterpretation must be addressed.
ROMANS 9:6
In Romans 9–11, the Apostle Paul defends the truth that God has not forsaken Israel, although the nation is in unbelief for a time. Their unbelief is not a failure on God’s part: “But it is not as though the word of God has failed” (Rom. 9:6). But then he adds, “For they are not all Israel who are descended from Israel.” There are two main views of the last statement.
1. The declaration speaks of Gentiles being part of Israel (or the new Israel) so that the distinction between Israel and the church is done away. So, the church is spiritual Israel. Consequently, the word Israel is turned into a salvation term and not an ethnic term.
2. The second view is that not all Jewish people (Israel) are saved. There are two kinds of people in view in the verse: Jews who have faith in Messiah Yeshua and those who do not. In essence, Jewish people must do more than be Jewish to be saved.
There are several reasons why the second option is the better interpretation of Paul’s words. First, the primary intent of the entire section of Romans 9–11 is to explain the current situation of Israel and its future hope in Messiah. The second interpretation better fits this larger context. Second, this view also better fits the preceding context. In Romans 9:1-5, the focus is entirely on physical Israel and the blessings that it possesses. Third, the second view actually expresses the statement of the following context in 9:7-8: “nor are they all children because they are Abraham’s descendants.” Fourth, this view harmonizes well with the illustrations of Isaac and Jacob given in 9:7-13. Isaac and Jacob were sons of promise and not just physical sons in God’s plan. They were both physical and spiritual sons. Likewise, the Jewish people must come to God via the promise through the Messiah and not because of their genetic makeup. Paul wants his kinsmen to come to God through Jesus. In 9:6, he is not envisioning Gentiles in the discussion. Therefore, there is no basis in this verse for speaking of the Church as the new Israel.
GALATIANS 6:16
In Galatians, the apostle Paul scolds believers, especially Messianic Jews, who insist that one must be circumcised and follow the Law of Moses to continue in the Christian faith. At stake was the gospel of eternal life through faith in Yeshua (Gal. 1:6-10). Toward the end of the book, the author summarizes his point: “For neither is circumcision anything, nor uncircumcision, but a new creation” (6:15). Then he adds in the next verse, “And those who will walk by this rule, peace and mercy be upon them, and upon the Israel of God.” As with Romans 9:6, there are two main positions on the meaning of “Israel of God.”
1. The “Israel of God” refers to the church, the new creation of verse 15. The Greek word for and before “upon the Israel of God” means even. The blessing would be for the church, even the Israel of God. This helps support the idea that the church equals Israel. There is only one category of people in the verse.
2. The “Israel of God” refers to Jewish believers. The word and is emphatic, taking on the usual meaning of and. The blessing would be for the church and also includes the Jewish believers in the church. The passage does not equate Israel and the church. There are two categories of people in the passage.
There are three reasons that the second interpretation is the better choice. First, the preposition “upon” is repeated for both groups, those who follow this rule and the Israel of God, implying that there are two categories of people. Second, all other references to Israel in the New Testament refer to Hebrew people in some way. Third, it makes sense for Paul, after a blistering attack on Judaizers throughout the book, to remind his readers that the blessing applies to those Jewish people who have come to Messiah by faith. They should not reject these brothers due to the controversy. Consequently, this verse does not support the idea that there is no distinction between Israel and the church.
CONCLUSION
Why do our theological opponents reject seeing the name Israel as referring to Jewishness in some way? For some, it could be creedal theology, that is, an inherited tradition that must be upheld. This sometimes leads to New Testament priority in interpreting the Old Testament. It is a kind of “church over Israel” approach that contradicts the spirit of Romans 9–11. The next step is the need to interpret the promises, especially land and national promises, in an allegorical way rather than a grammatical-historical way. In the end, Israel is wrested from its true meaning. Israel means Israel the man or the descendants who have come from him. God has a plan for this people that will not be denied.
[1] Oswald T. Allis, Prophecy and the Church (Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing, 1945), p. 244.
[2] English Bible numbers use NASB95.
[3] There are always a few exceptions, such as Rahab and Ruth, who were not physical descendants of Jacob but joined the family or nation of Israel. In addition, there were proselytes who, from one vantage point, were part of the nation as well. Although the centurion may be a proselyte to Judaism, Yeshua appears to consider him, in this passage, to be outside of Israel.
This article originally appeared in Ariel Magazine, Winter 2024, Vol. 1, No. 53. Readers who wish to view the article in its original magazine format may access the complete issue here: [link].
Copyright © 2024 Ariel Ministries. Originally published in Ariel Magazine, Winter 2024, Vol. 1, No. 53. This article is republished on the Ariel Ministries website with permission. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission from Ariel Ministries. Permission requests may be directed to corporateoffice@ariel.org.
